It is the International Scientific Review of the Ethical Packaging Charter Foundation. A bimonthly publication in which 7 multidisciplinary articles are presented, relating to packaging, selected by several magazines of the digital science world
In this number:
Assessing the Biodegradation Characteristics of Poly(Butylene Succinate) and Poly(Lactic Acid) Formulations Under Controlled Composting Conditions
Biopolymers and bio-based plastics, such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polybutylene succinate (PBS), are recognized as environmentally friendly materials and are widely used, especially in the packaging industry. The purpose of this study was to assess the degradation of PLA- and PBS-based formulations in the forms of granules and films under controlled composting conditions at a laboratory scale. Biodegradation tests of bio-based materials were conducted under controlled aerobic conditions, following the standard EVS-EN ISO 14855-1:2012. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed using a high-resolution Zeiss Ultra 55 scanning electron microscope to analyze the samples. After the six-month laboratory-scale composting experiment, it was observed that the PLA-based materials degraded by 47.46–98.34%, while the PBS-based materials exhibited a final degradation degree of 34.15–80.36%. Additionally, the PLA-based compounds displayed a variable total organic carbon (TOC) content ranging from 38% to 56%. In contrast, the PBS-based compounds exhibited a more consistent TOC content, with a narrow range from 53% to 54%. These findings demonstrate that bioplastics can contribute to reducing plastic waste through controlled composting, but their degradation efficiency depends on the material composition and environmental conditions. Future efforts should optimize bioplastic formulations and composting systems while developing supportive policies for wider adoption.
https://www.mdpi.com/2673-9623/5/3/17
Improving Environmental Sustainability of Food-Contact Polypropylene Packaging Production
Most types of packaging that are in contact with food are made of polypropylene (PP), and the environmental impacts of their production and use are still high. Currently, incorporating recycled PP in the food industry is not a viable solution for reducing environmental impacts due to its complexity and high costs. For this reason, understanding how to reduce the environmental impacts derived from the production process of plastic food packaging is essential. This study aims to analyze the environmental performance of the production of single-use PP food-contact packaging using the Life Cycle Assessment approach in order to estimate the effectiveness of proposed solutions to mitigate its impacts. Furthermore, the economic savings from the avoided CO2 emissions were estimated. To achieve these goals, three diverse scenarios with different energy source mixes were studied. The analysis was carried out using SimaPro v9.5 software, the Ecoinvent v3.8 database, and a ReCiPe 2016 impact assessment. The findings show that upstream processes are the main contributors to the environmental profile, with 67% of the total impact, followed by core processes, with 32% of the total impacts. An increase in the use of renewable energy can lead to environmental benefits, with an impact reduction ranging from 13% to 61% depending on the energy source mix. Furthermore, up to EUR 12,458 per 100 tons of units produced was saved due to the lack of CO2 emissions. The results of this research will be useful to encourage the use of renewable energy in the processes of PP packaging production as an alternative when polymer replacement is difficult.
https://www.mdpi.com/2571-8797/7/3/70
Disrupting Defenses: Effects of Bisphenol A and Its Analogs on Human Antibody Production In Vitro
Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine-disrupting chemical with estrogen-like activity, known to impair immune function. BPA may act as a pro-inflammatory agent, reducing immune response efficacy, increasing bacterial load in E. coli infections, and altering immune responses in parasitic infections (Leishmania major, Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, Toxocara canis) through cytokine and regulatory T-cell modulation. Following its ban in food contact materials in Europe, several analogs have been introduced. This study assessed the immunotoxicity of BPA and six analogs, namely BPAP, BPE, BPP, BPS-MAE, BPZ, and TCBPA, by evaluating in vitro the antibody production. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy male and female donors were exposed to increasing concentrations of each compound for 24 h. After stimulation with rhIL-2 and ODN2006, IgM and IgG secretion were measured on day six. All compounds suppressed antibody production in a concentration-dependent manner, with some sex-related differences. IC50 values showed BPP as the most potent suppressor, and BPE as the weakest. Similarly, IC20 values confirmed these differences in potency, except for BPA being the weakest for IgM in males. Overall, te results do not support the idea that BPA analogs are safer than BPA.
https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/15/8/1203
Preparation of PLLA and PLGA Copolymers with Poly(ethylene adipate) Through Reactive Melt Mixing: Structural Characterization, Thermal Properties, and Molecular Mobility Insights
In this study, a series of copolymers was synthesized using the promising biodegradable polymers Poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA), Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), and Poly(ethylene adipate) (PEAd), known for their high potential. PEAd was synthesized through a two-step melt polycondensation process and then used to prepare copolymers with PLLA (PLLA-co-PEAd) and PLGA (PLGA-co-PEAd) at weight ratios of 90/10 and 75/25, respectively. The synthesized materials, along with the starting polymers, were extensively characterized for their structure, molecular weight, crystallinity, and thermal behavior. These novel systems exhibit single thermal transitions, e.g., glass transition. The incorporation of PEAd into the copolymers induced a plasticizing effect, evidenced by a consistent decrease in the glass transition temperature. Due to the latter effect in combination with the Mw drop, the facilitation of crystal nucleation was observed. Finally, the results by dielectric spectroscopy on the local and segmental molecular mobility provided additional proof for the homogeneity of the systems, as manifested, e.g., by the recording of single segmental relaxation processes. Overall, the findings indicate that the PLLA-co-PEAd and PLGA-co-PEAd copolymers hold significant potential, and the use of complementary experimental techniques offers valuable insights and indirect indications of their properties.
https://www.mdpi.com/2673-6209/5/3/35
Migration Safety of Perfluoroalkyl Substances from Sugarcane Pulp Tableware: Residue Analysis and Takeout Simulation Study
The rapid growth of plant-based biodegradable tableware, driven by plastic restrictions, necessitates rigorous safety assessments of potential chemical contaminants like per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). This study comprehensively evaluated PFAS contamination risks in commercial sugarcane pulp tableware, focusing on the residues of five target PFASs (PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFHxA, PFPeA) and their migration behavior under simulated use and takeout conditions. An analysis of 22 samples revealed elevated levels of total fluorine (TF: 33.7–163.6 mg/kg) exceeding the EU limit (50 mg/kg) in 31% of products. While sporadic PFOA residues surpassed the EU single compound limit (0.025 mg/kg) in 9% of samples (16.1–25.5 μg/kg), the levels of extractable organic fluorine (EOF: 4.9–17.4 mg/kg) and the low EOF/TF ratio (3.19–10.4%) indicated inorganic fluorides as the primary TF source. Critically, the migration of all target PFASs into food simulants (water, 4% acetic acid, 50% ethanol, 95% ethanol) under standardized use conditions was minimal (PFOA: 0.52–0.70 μg/kg; PFPeA: 0.54–0.63 μg/kg; others < LOQ). Even under aggressive simulated takeout scenarios (50 °C oscillation for 12 h + 12 h storage at 25 °C), PFOA migration reached only 0.99 ± 0.01 μg/kg in 95% ethanol. All migrated levels were substantially (>15-fold) below typical safety thresholds (e.g., 0.01 mg/kg). These findings demonstrate that, despite concerning residue levels in some products pointing to manufacturing contamination sources, migration during typical and even extended use scenarios poses negligible immediate consumer risk. This study underscores the need for stricter quality control targeting PFOA and inorganic fluoride inputs in sugarcane pulp tableware production.
https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/30/15/3166
Tensile and Structural Properties of Antioxidant- and CaCO3-Modified Polyethylene Films
The demand for modified packaging materials increases annually. At the same time, there is growing interest in the development of functional packaging. The incorporation of modifiers, stabilizers, and fillers into polymer matrices can enhance the functionality of the material but may also negatively affect its safety. Polymers are susceptible to degradation, which negatively affects their strength and tensile properties under external factors (physical, chemical or environmental). Packaging containing antimicrobial and antioxidant agents is among the most promising, as it contributes to the product quality during storage. Films based on calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and dihydroquercetin (DHQ) remain insufficiently studied, despite their potential. Such materials are especially relevant for fatty products with a large contact surface area, including butter, cheese, and other solid high-fat foods. This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the structural and tensile properties of polyethylene films modified with varying contents of CaCO3 and DHQ. The films were produced via blown film extrusion using a laboratory extruder (SJ-28). Surface analysis was performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to examine the film’s composition. The results showed that the introduction of more than 40.0 wt.% of CaCO3 into the polymer base affected the strength properties. The conducted studies of the physical and mechanical properties of LDPE film samples filled with CaCO3 showed significant changes in the samples containing more than 50.0 wt.% of the filler, with an increase in strength of more than 40.0%. The relative elongation at break after 50.0 wt.% decreased by more than 75.0%. These results indicate that to achieve the best strength properties for packaging materials, it is recommended to fill them to a maximum of 40.0 wt.%. The introduction of the antioxidant DHQ had almost no effect on the strength of the modified films. SEM analysis of films with high CaCO3 content and DHQ revealed visible antioxidant particles on the film surface, suggesting enhanced antioxidant potential at the interface between the film and dairy products. AFM analysis confirmed that a CaCO3 40.0 wt.% content altered the surface roughness and heterogeneity of the films. FTIR spectroscopy revealed that the incorporation of CaCO3 influenced the overall spectral profile of polyethylene, resulting in decreased peak intensities depending on the concentration of the filler. Based on these results, the modified polyethylene-based film with CaCO3 and DHQ shows potential for use as food packaging with antioxidant properties.
https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/17/16/2182
Natural Dyes and Pigments: Sustainable Applications and Future Scope
Natural dyes and pigments are gaining importance as a sustainable alternative to synthetic dyes. Sourced from renewable materials, they are known for their biodegradable and non-toxic properties, offering a diverse range of color profiles and applications across industries such as textiles, cosmetics, food, and pharmaceuticals. This manuscript discusses various aspects of natural dyes and pigments (derived from plants and microbes), including anthocyanins, flavonoids, carotenoids, lactones, and chlorophyll. Furthermore, it highlights the polyphenolic nature of these compounds, which is responsible for their antioxidant activity and contributes to their anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, and immunomodulatory effects. However, natural dyes are often categorized as pigments rather than dyes due to their limited solubility, a consequence of their molecular characteristics. Consequently, this manuscript provides a detailed discussion of key structural challenges associated with natural dyes and pigments, including thermal decomposition, photodegradation, photoisomerization, cross-reactivity, and pH sensitivity. Due to these limitations, natural dyes are currently used in relatively limited applications, primarily in the food industry, and, to lesser extent, in textiles and coatings. Nevertheless, with ongoing research and technological innovations, natural dyes present a viable alternative to synthetic dyes, promoting a more sustainable and environmentally conscious future.
https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4079/6/3/23
